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| I shall not go back
to debate the causes of the war. The intolerable
wrongs done and planned against us by the
sinister masters of Germany have long since
become too grossly obvious and odious to
every true American to need to be rehearsed.
-
Woodrow Wilson to Congress, 1917 |
The
First World War had many effects on the world,
some more dramatic than others. Mass casualties,
flu epidemics, and the use of modern technology
are all well known aspects of this war. It was
also the first to bring widespread fear and
paranoia to the American public. The fear of
socialism, anarchy, and communism fueled government-sponsored
propaganda that scared the American people into
a patriotic furor. This rabid pro-Americanism
took its toll on the German-American population
and culture. Germany was the enemy, as was anything
German. Citizens feared that their German neighbors
might be spies or subversives. At the beginning
of the war, before American involvement, German-Americans
did not hide their support for their homeland.
Through rallies and German-themed clubs, German-Americans
proudly cheered on their homeland. However,
this activity only made them more suspect as
American intervention in the war became inevitable.
Once the United States entered the war, it put
the German-American population in a tricky situation;
should their loyalties lie with their homeland,
or the new land? Some German organizations in
America quickly proclaimed their American loyalty,
others did not. Soon, any sign of pro-German
activity became suspect. Americans joined together
and formed organizations, such as the American
Protective League, to root out traitors and
rally for American loyalty. German place names
were changed, and schools across the country
ceased to offer German-language classes. German
culture was systematically removed from the
United States. These actions were felt especially
hard in the Midwest, where the vast majority
of German-Americans lived. Chicago, the most
German city in America at the time of the First
World War, hosted a plethora of German-language
newspapers and clubs. Because of this, Chicago,
and other parts of Illinois, became a hotbed
of anti-German sentiment. Germaniphobia went
beyond place name changes and took on a violent
and sinister tone when Robert Prager, a German
immigrant who was thought to be disloyal, was
hanged by a mob in Collinsville, Illinois. The
state of Illinois provides a small-scale setting
to witness how the war led to the downfall of
German culture in America.
I hope that I need
give no further proofs and assurances than
I have already given throughout nearly three
years of anxious patience that I am the
friend of peace, and mean to preserve it
for America so long as I am able
. - Woodrow Wilson to Congress, 1917 |
When
the war broke out in 1914, German-Americans
valiantly cheered their homeland. America was
not yet involved in the war, so the German-Americans
did not feel they had to hide their German patriotism.
The fear and suspicion of German-Americans had
not begun to spread. Chicago's German newspapers
ran articles supporting the homeland, and were
confident that the Germans would win easily.
Some German and Austrian immigrants reported
to their respective consulates to volunteer
for the army. German-Americans formed pro-German
organizations and held rallies to show their
support. The German-American Alliance was one
of these organizations. They sponsored a rally
at Chicago's Auditorium Theatre in August of
1916, which drew over 10,000 people.(1)
They also held a Bismarck celebration to support
Germany in the war. German-American pacifists
formed the Friends of Peace in 1915, and held
a national meeting in Chicago. Eleven of the
fifteen executives of this group were German-born,
which led to their label as pro-German, even
though they were against the war. The Teutonic
Sons of America, another pro-German group, formed
soon after, and had over two million members
by September of 1915.(2)
This outspoken group often made headlines in
major newspapers because of their support for
Germany. "Teutonic Sons Attack Wilson's Administration,"(3)
and "Teutonic Sons Honor Riley,"(4)
both headlines from the Chicago Tribune,
illustrate the presence this group had in Chicago.
As American involvement in the war neared, a
group of prominent German-Americans from Chicago
traveled to Washington, D.C. in hopes to deter
Wilson from entering the war.(5)
Their efforts were in vain, but further illustrate
the unwavering support for the homeland that
many Germans retained during that time. However,
not all German-Americans were openly supportive
of Germany, some vowed American loyalty immediately.
A lot of the German-Americans in the country
had been in America for a long time, and thought
of themselves as Americans, not German-Americans.
Many of Chicago's German-Jews of the Sinai Temple
publicly declared American support, as did the
German Methodist ministers, and Chicago's Lutherans.
Despite the claims of Illinois' German-Jews,
Methodists, and Lutherans(6),
it was clear that there was overwhelming support
for the homeland among the state's German-American
population. This support would later lead to
intense suspicion, violence, and ultimately
the end of German culture in Illinois.
America has been
the great background of the European War.
Though far removed from the trenches with
the play of artillery and the heroic charges,
this country has been the scene of an equally
dramatic, though silent struggle-a battle
not visible to the eye. It has been a conflict
of wits, of statesman pitted against statesman,
of secret agent striving to outdo his opponent
of a belligerent nation; for in America,
agents of Germany have been striving for
a two-fold aim. They have sought to enmesh
the United States in an international conspiracy
and to use this country as the means of
a rear attack on the Entente Allies.
- Excerpt from John Price's The German Spy
in America, 1917 |
Once
the United States entered the war, a propaganda
campaign was initiated by the government to
rally support for the war and increase patriotism
in the country. Germany became an official enemy
of the United States, as did any person who
supported Germany. President Wilson oversaw
the creation of the Committee on Public Information
(CPI), which distributed pamphlets, posters,
and motion pictures, promoting America and demonizing
Germans. One CPI pamphlet reported that "The
German-American National Alliance had long endeavored
to weld persons of German descent in the United
States into a compact body, to be used when
desirable, in the interests of Germany."(7)
This asserted that all people of German ancestry
were loyal to Germany, not America. This assertion
was untrue and led to suspicion of all German-Americans.
The pamphlet went on to state that "The hand
of the German Government was extended to America
to influence members of Congress through German-American
voters and their sympathizers."(8)
Again, all German-Americans were accused of
being disloyal. The propaganda was incredibly
effective and scared the American public into
a patriotic frenzy. Public figures, such as
former President Theodore Roosevelt, toured
the country giving pro-American speeches. He
and William Howard Taft both gave speeches in
Springfield, Illinois on the importance of American
intervention in the war and the need for total
support from all citizens. In May of 1917, the
Illinois General Assembly passed a bill creating
the State Council of Defense (SDC) to regulate
war activities in the state. In addition to
managing the state's food production, conservation,
and Liberty Bond sales, the SCD also directed
the state's propaganda campaign. The SCD oversaw
the distribution of over 200,000 pieces of patriotic
literature in Illinois.(9)
The
CPI and the SCD were helped by the efforts of
zealous citizens who joined the American Protective
League (APL) to help spread, and sometimes demand,
patriotism. The city of Chicago had more than
13,000 APL members.(10)
The passage of the Espionage Act of 1917 and the
Sedition Act of 1918 made it legal to arrest and
charge anyone who spoke out against the United
States. In Illinois, the APL was responsible for
conducting over seventy-five percent of the wartime
investigations for espionage.(11)
The APL was a very invasive group who used intimidation
and other scare-tactics to threaten the American
public. They held "slacker raids," where they
demanded to see the draft cards of men to verify
they were not dodging
the draft. The CPI, SCD, and APL all worked together
to promote the war effort in America, using force
if necessary. The fears of Americans were not
wholly unsubstantiated; the sinking of the Lusitania
by the Germans and the capture of a small number
of German spies were real events, but were used
to exaggerate the actual number of subversives
in the country. By sensationalizing the possibility
of disloyal German-Americans, these groups were
successful in advancing American patriotism which
initiated the decline of German-American culture
in Illinois and throughout the country by the
removal of German cultural icons, landmarks, and
names.
This is a nation
- not a polyglot boarding house. There is
not room in the country for any 50-50 American,
nor can there be but one loyalty - to the
Stars and Stripes.
- Theodore Roosevelt, Des Moines, Iowa,
May 27th, 1918 |
The
fear of espionage and disloyalty led to a campaign
to Americanize German immigrants and anything
German in the country. German place names were
changed, German language classes were taken
out of school curriculum, German organizations
became more pro-American, and even some Germans
Americanized their names. In Chicago, Berlin,
Hamburg, Frankfurt, Coblenz, and Rhine streets
were all changed to American names.(12)
The Bismarck Hotel was renamed the Hotel Randolph,
the Hotel Kaiserhof was changed to the Hotel
Atlantic, and German Hospital was renamed Grant
Hospital.(13) The
Bismarck Beer Gardens, on the corner of Grace
and Halsted Streets in Chicago, was renamed
Marigold Gardens in 1915. German-American clubs
and organizations followed suit; the Germania
Club became the Lincoln Club and the Kaiser
Friedrich Mutual Aid Society became the George
Washington Benevolent Aid Society. A public
monument that honored Johann von Goethe, a prominent
German artist and scientist, was put into storage
during the war.
German
churches also felt pressure to Americanize.
Church services that were conducted in German
switched to English. At St. Clement's Church,
the sisters were required to report and register
alien members.(14)
German churches participated in Liberty Bond
drives and swore their allegiance to America,
but lost some their culture in the process.
Americanization and the fear of Germans cost
some people in Illinois their jobs. The Chicago
Symphony Orchestra's conductor, Frederick A.
Stock, was rumored to be unpatriotic and was
forced to step down to pursue the naturalization
process for citizenship.(15)
The choral director of the Illinois
Bicentennial Pageant was forced to quit because
of his German origins, and the Chicago Athletic
Club fired its German-born employees. German
cultural identity never made a recovery from
this systematic Americanization.
I say plainly that
every American who takes part in the action
of a mob or gives it any sort of countenance
is no true son of this great Democracy,
but its betrayer and does more to discredit
her by that single disloyalty to her standards
of right than the words of her statesmen
or the sacrifices of her heroic boys in
the trenches can do to make suffering peoples
believe her to be their savior.
- Woodrow Wilson to a news conference, 1918
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The
anti-German furor and the fear of espionage
eventually erupted into instances of harassment
and violence. Illinois was home to a number
of violent acts against Germans and Italians,
as were other states in the country. Labor unions,
such as the Industrial Workers of the World,
were often hotbeds of Socialism and came under
scrutiny during World War I. The unions were
thought to contain German spies, and that the
strikes were an attempt made by the German government
to control the American economy. In one of the
CPI's pamphlets, it was reported that "The strike
was a weapon which both the German and Austrian
ambassadors intended to use with destructive
effect on American industry."(16)
The suspicion of spies in American unions brought
many investigations and raids to the members,
especially for the IWW. The secretary of the
Rockford, Illinois branch of the IWW was arrested
with over 100 members for participating in a
march opposing the draft. In Freeport, Illinois,
117 men, including 62 aliens, were sentenced
to a year of hard labor for draft evasion.(17)
The IWW offices in Chicago, Rockport, and other
cities were raided in September of 1917. The
raids led to the indictment of 116 men for thousands
of crimes, mostly strikes, boycotts, and sabotage.
The offices of the German newspapers, Arbeiterzeitung,
Sozial Demokraten, and the Sonne
were raided by government officials, but results
were not incriminating(18).
In Staunton, Illinois, the APL tarred and feathered
an Italian immigrant who belonged to the Industrial
Workers of the World (IWW) and a lawyer who
defended IWW members.
Not
all of the acts of violence were reserved for
IWW members; German-Americans throughout the country
faced harassment from their peers, attacks from
the APL, and instances of mob violence. German
Methodists in Illinois faced the fear of having
yellow stripes painted on their doors if they
didn't purchase Liberty Bonds. In Havana, Illinois,
a group of fifteen armed men entered the home
of Edward Speckman, a German-American, accused
him of making remarks that were unpatriotic to
America, and demanded his loyalty(19).
Four men, including a Polish Catholic priest,
were tarred and feathered in Christopher, Illinois.(20)
This type of abuse happened throughout the country,
but Illinois stands out due to one particularly
heinous act of paranoia-induced violence involving
a man named Prager and an angry mob of patriotic
Americans.
Robert
Prager immigrated to the United States in hopes
of finding better economic opportunities than
he had in Germany. He worked as a baker in St.
Louis, and in 1918, tried to join a union in the
Collinsville area. He was denied entrance to the
union, probably because he was German and had
socialist leanings. His denial turned ugly, and
he was called a liar and a spy by the union president.
Being German and called a spy was serious allegation
in World War I America, and Robert Prager knew
it. He posted handbills throughout the town swearing
his loyalty and allegiance to the United States.
He had registered for the draft while in St. Louis
and even tried to join the navy, but was denied
due to a medical condition.(21)
Unfortunately, the citizens of Collinsville did
not know this, and were convinced that Prager
was a German spy. During the morning of April
14, a group of angry men left a local saloon,
marched to Robert Prager's apartment, abducted
him, and forced him to march down Main Street
draped in an American flag. The police interfered
and placed Prager in jail for his own safety.
The mob, consisting of over 300 people, reformed
in front of the jail, demanding that Prager be
released. When the police refused to release him,
the mob forced their way into the jail, took Prager
out of the basement where he was hiding, and forced
him to march out of town. Prager continued to
deny allegations that he was a spy and attempted
to assert his loyalty, but he could say nothing
to appease the crowd. Some wanted to tar and feather
him; others had something else in mind. A fifteen-year-old
boy was sent for tar and feathers, but returned
with a rope.(22)
Prager was given time to write his mother a letter,
and was then hanged from a tree. His arms were
left unbound and he was able to support himself,
so he was lowered, bound, and hanged again. This
time he didn't wiggle free.
Dear Parents- I
must this day, the 5th of April, die. Please
pray for me, my dear parents.
- Robert
Prager in a letter written to his parents
before he was hanged, 1918 |
Twelve
men were arrested for the murder, including
the leader of the mob, Joseph Riegel. The trial
made national headlines that induced a media
frenzy. Riegel recanted an earlier confession,
and the men received a verdict of not guilty.
The hanging of Robert Prager serves as an example
of what fear can do to a nation. It was important
for the United States and our allies to win
the war, but was it necessary to use propaganda,
the American Protective League, and other organizations
to scare the country into conformity? These
actions taken by the government, and by individual
citizens, created a national hysteria, which
led to the harassment of innocent German-Americans
and the murder of Robert Prager. Loyal German-Americans
were punished for the actions of a few spies
and their ancestral homeland. German culture
came to a screeching halt during this time,
and German-Americans were afraid to show any
pride for their ancestry. The number of people
in Illinois who claimed German heritage declined
from 191,000 in 1914 to 112,000 in 1920. During
WWI, the Americanization process destroyed what
German culture that did exist in place names,
landmarks, clubs, and restaurants. A German
subculture has not been able to resurrect itself
in America, leaving those with German ancestry
at a loss for signs of their German-American
cultural identity in the United States.
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By
Rickie Lazzerini
Historian
BA History
University of California, Santa Barbara
Index
of Historical Reviews
© 2006 Rickie Lazzerini,
All Rights Reserved
This page may be freely linked to but may not
be reproduced
in any form without prior written consent from
the author.
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